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COMMENT TO EXTRACT THE CAP. XII, ON legislative, executive and federations STATE. Art.143

Let's discuss a bit of Locke proposed by the Commission as an example. Belongs to the cap. XII POWERS OF LEGISLATIVE, EXECUTIVE AND STATE FEDERATIVE, the Second Treatise on Civil Government.

text


And because of the fragility of men (who tend to accumulate power), they may be tempted to get their hands on the power of making laws and executing them in order to be exempted to obey the laws they themselves make, and as could also be tempted to make laws to suit and run for profit, thus leading to established interests than those of the rest of the community and contrary to the purposes of society and government, it is common practice in the States either organized (where the good of all is duly considered) that the legislative power is handed over to various people, which in formal assembly, have each, or together with the other, the power to make laws.

Locke, J., Treatise on Civil Government. Cap. XII, LEGISLATIVE POWERS, EXECUTIVE AND STATE FEDERATIVE . Art.143.

comment Text Format (Selectivity: second paragraph)
Paragraph a) Explanation of the two expressions underlined.
Paragraph b) Presentation of the theme.
Paragraph c) Justification from the author's philosophical position.



terms


'fragility of men ".:
understand that the term' fragility of men" in the context in which it appears to be understood as a moral weakness, this is a moral quality as opposed to the integrity, understood as a moral quality that practiced the virtues of line with what conscience dictates is not subjective but is guided by the dictates of a higher reason that is not subject to individual interests. Locke himself is giving us a clue about what he means by this term and then bracketing the term 'fragility of men "clarification" (which tend to accumulate too much power), "clearly referring to self as an equivalent , that is, as a moral evil. It is clear, moreover, from this same term if selfishness was presented as a moral value by one of the founders of liberalism (Adam Smith) in the case of Locke this principle, the goodness of egoism, is far of be an acceptable value for our author.

'legislature'
Although the political doctrine of the division and the unsuitability of the influx of power into one is yet to develop in the way we now know ( De L'esprit de lois , Montesquieu was released in mid-eighteenth century) we find in this text with a clear sign that the outlines of such a political theory are already in this Second Treatise of Government Civ il. Locke tells us that the "well-organized country 'is an assembly of' different people 'that has the power to legislate. Which is the same as saying that this function should not be exercised by a single person (the king) or a favorite chamber appointed by it, as is usual in absolute monarchies then prevailing in Europe (although in England he met the publication of the Second Treatise in 1688/1698 had already taken a political revolution, the 'Glorious' by 1688 - which could well earn him the recognition of 'well-organized country'). Locke understood that the three branches of the fundamentally political society were the legislative and the executive, who should exercise their functions separately and to guarantee individual freedom and private property (but the legislature was to vote no, but call of notable citizens), and also a federal power to unite the country and abroad present a well-formed political community.



Exhibition of the subject.

The theme of the issue here is clear from the very title of the chapter to which it belongs: on the legislative, executive and federative State. It is therefore a text of political theory, political theory but in a very doomed to directly influence social and political events that are living in England that the Declaration of Rights arising after the final deposition of the Stuarts (1688: Glorious Revolution). This dynasty is then aligned with the maintenance of the privileges associated with the ancien regime and even came to support the restoration of Catholicism in England. This initiative was also supported by the landed gentry and some institutional means allocated to the management of estates and disaffected to the new, 'class'. This new arrangement by which the bourgeoisie struggled commerce, banking, manufacturing and engineering, and that drove in the fields an 'agricultural revolution' (the figure of the gentleman farmer ) that was already brewing as a prelude to and history of the Industrial Revolution.

between the first and the second edition of Treatise on Civil Government (1688/1698), Locke published in 1690 a book not too long, the Treaty Concerning Human Understanding ( An Essay Concerning Human Understanding ) in which it made a frontal critical innate mechanism and Cartesian, and which also posited a reform of the philosophy that knowledge become a 'morally useful', and certainly there is a relationship line between criticism of nativism and the mechanistic (as it is of fatalism) and criticism of the political system embodied by the absolute monarchy which stood against the political thought of Locke. Quite the opposite, in turn, tested Thomas Hobbes Leviathan with (1651) in this political essay based on the assumption that the principle of evil of a man (the famous homo homini lupus, Hobbes argued that Tito's Latin playwright Plautus Macio), argues that the state must institutionalize repression to avoid a state of perpetual civil war. Far

This anthropological and political pessimism that Hobbes justified and legitimized the institution of absolute monarchy, Locke, based on Aristotle's proposal that what justifies the policy is achieving the common good, examines the institutional fabric of the state and discover, much before Montesquieu, whom influence, which are a short series of powers - "the legislative, judicial and federal", as stated in the title of the chapter we are discussing, which constitute the backbone of the state, with legislative power the most decisive of them all. In absolute monarchies that power is the prerogative of the monarch, while in states which are under the principle of promoting freedom and independence from the powers (which are justified only as seeking the common good) that power is to focus on a camera legislators whose duty, they have to swear to fulfill , is none other than to propose laws that seek the common good. In this sense, the search or pursuit of happiness (the pursuit of happines ) and the provision of such human-contention of being happy or as happy as can be, it must also be contemplated by the legislators.

Justification from the author's philosophical position
As to the philosophical justification of this political doctrine that since subsequent applications such as Adam Smith (Locke after about three years) or those of Jeremy Bentham (much later, and nineteenth century) is known by the name of liberalism or 'liberalism political ', we have already pointed out that is critical to innate Cartesian mechanistic fatalism defends it on matters of psychology and las'pasiones matters of the soul' where they can find the foundations of his political theory. Yet Locke's philosophy, which is destined to become as an entire autonomous philosophical doctrine, which we know as the of empiricism (from the Greek word ' Empeiria' : experientia ), is based on the assertion that the source of all knowledge is in the feelings (again the Aristotelian influence) and that ideas, simple complex, which give rise to a process of reflection from which you are certain complex mental representations whose relations with the sensory experiences are not always easy to establish, as, for example, thought the idea of \u200b\u200b'substance', which is referred to by Locke as 'a something' ( a je ne sais quoi ).

A 'do not know what' we can not deny, despite not being able to establish such complex forms of thought, a direct link to a sensory experience. Will the Scotsman David Hume who take these premises final conclusions pro-empiricist Locke (a kind of philosophical skepticism compatible with epistemological and moral relativism.) Thus, if Locke stated that the I, as subject of knowledge, the Cartesian cogitans -res, there was an intuitive certainty, Hume denied this possibility by stating that that I could not be 'impressions' (this is the term Locke used instead of 'feelings'), if Locke said that the World -the Cartesian "res extensa could be an empirical certainty, Hume denied this possibility to be impossible to have impressions of an object so poorly defined (Hume said that only impressions of the world could be closer to the subject, which will directly and significantly affected ), and if Locke argued that God had a demonstrative certainty, by linking the idea of \u200b\u200bGod with the Platonic or the doer 'first cause' of Aristotle and Thomas Aquinas, Hume also denied that certainty and stating that the object 'God'-the unextended Cartesian res-only approach was permissible for theological belief (by faith) but not by natural or empirical knowledge.

Such were the philosophical basis from which the pro-empiricist Locke, anti-nativist, the antifatalista operated to develop his political theory. A political theory also anti-nativist (the monarchy is an institution 'innate', and liberalism is a naturally Republican political doctrine but can support a parliamentary monarchy), anti-fatalistic (we are not forced to resign in a social order that denies us the possibility of happiness), and resolutely revolutionary as incompatible with its own political fixity of the theorists of absolute monarchy. For these reasons, it Once Locke has to recognize as the first constitutional history of the law applied to politics.

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Ancient Mesoamerica News Updates 2011, No. 11: Mexico City - Sculpted Sections of El Tajin Columns To Be Shown at "Six Cities" Exhibit
The sculpted center sections of three columns from the Mound / Structure of the Columns Building at El Tajin, Veracruz, Will Be Shown at the upcoming exhibit "Six ancient cities in Mesoamerica. Society and Environment" in the National Anthropology Museum in Mexico City. It Will Be The First Time That the sculpted sections of all three columns Will Be Shown in public. These panels picture the story of 13 Rabbit, the Presumed conqueror of El Tajin and Probably Were Produced in the last part of the Epiclassic Period, circa AD 1100-1200. The National Institute of Anthropology and History (INAH) posted a short notice on this subject last Friday, February 25, 2011 (edited by amanu, drawing and thinking after Image El Tajin, 1999, p. 76):
Museum of Anthropology will look columns of El Tajin - The shafts of the pillars of the Palace of the Columns, which is narrated in relief one of the most intriguing moments in the history of El Tajin, will be reunited for the first time at the National Museum of Anthropology ( MNA), to form part of the great exhibition six ancient cities in Mesoamerica. Society and Environment, to be submitted from March.
These disks of sandstone 18 to 108 cm diameter, superimposed exceed a meter in height and form the middle of three columns over a thousand years ago had to support the palace of one of the ancient rulers of El Tajin, in Veracruz state today.
The exhibition, organized by the National Institute of Anthropology and History (INAH), will be mounted in the Temporary Exhibition Hall of the MNA, where the pillars of the Palace of the Columns mark the entrance to the section will be devoted to El Tajin. The exhibition, which will bring together under one roof over 400 pre-Columbian pieces, will also report the development of ancient city \u200b\u200bof Monte Alban, Palenque, Teotihuacan, Tenochtiltlan and Tlatelolco.
in the shafts (midway between the base and the capital of a column) of the ancient Totonac city, visitors can admire the story of the arrival of the ruling Thirteen Rabbit El Tajin, who conquered the city and initiated profound changes in architecture to 800-1200 AD "was recorded in these columns when they Rabbit Thirteen of unknown origin, defeated a group that held power and was established in the same," said archaeologist Patricia Castillo, curator of this section exposure, indicating that the way the columns have been arranged for this exhibit, is as would have been the entrance to the Palace of the Columns, one of the last to be erected at El Tajin, probably between 1100 and 1200 AD
explained that in bas-relief of these architectural elements is observed at the same Thirteen Rabbit, as well as a of their strongest warriors: Thirteen Skull, who takes the hand of a captive, a high-level character. "In the middle column stands a scene of gentlemen dressed in plumes that have six or eight quetzal feathers, it is masterfully executed bas-reliefs," the archaeologist Patricia Castillo, director of the Centro INAH Veracruz.
Specialist abounded that other figure that stands in the shafts is that of a priestess dedicated to the worship of Tlaloc, god of water, the excellent work of the stone can even see the texture of the skirt carries. According to Patricia Castillo, "sociocultural evolution of El Tajin is marked by the arrival of Rabbit Thirteen towards Epi period (800-1200 AD), who introduced a religious unification argument by drawing on the image and symbols of two deities main Tlaloc and Quetzalcoatl.
"Thirteen Rabbit also established an ideology and a new social institution-the latter represented by the duality also undertook the construction of famous monuments that would point in time and space, a new 'symbolic', which identified and restructured historical processes and worked as an announcement of the coming of Quetzalcoatl, the principal deity. "
INAH investigator noted that exposure six ancient cities in Mesoamerica. Society and Environment, is a unique opportunity for the public to see little-known pieces of El Tajin, including the records of the Palace of the Columns, which are under guard in this archaeological area.
Also, be concluded that the section on El Tajin, where the public can more widely known how important it was for the Mesoamerican Ballgame, considering that this site Veracruz have been reported so far 17 courts, "by assembling pieces representing yokes and palms, all of which were associated with this ritual . (Source INAH)
The drawing (from Sara Ladrón de Guevara, 1999, "Image and Thought in El Tajin," Universidad Veracruzana, Xalapa) shows a Portion of the sculptured north section of the column from the Mound / Structure of the Building Columns complexicity Indicating the visual narrative of the program at this building. A Recent study describe the complex iconography illustrating the Ceremonies as Leading up to and the ultimate accession of 13 Rabbit to high political office at El Tajín (Rex Koontz, 2009, "Lightning Gods and Feathered Serpents: The Public Sculpture of El Tajín, Veracruz," University of Texas Press, Austin).

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Ancient MesoAmerica News Updates 2011, No. 10: Mexico City - New Research Uncovers More Parts of the Temple Dedicated to Ehécatl-Quetzalcoátl
In early 2010 archaeologists of the Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia (INAH) uncovered the first part of the most important shrine dedicated to the Mexica god Ehécatl-Quetzalcoátl (see Ancient MesoAmerica News Updates 2010 , No. 8 ). Today, Thursday, February 24, 2011, the INAH Reported That Have Uncovered Excavations ungoing Another construction phase of this shrine s, which corresponds to the Period of AD 1481-1486 (Which corresponds chronologically to Stage V of the Templo Mayor (edited by amanu; photo: INAH):

Locate another part of the Temple of Ehécatl - A new constructive phase of the circular temple dedicated to Ehécatl-Quetzalcoatl, which corresponds to the period from 1481 to 1486 AD, was found by researchers National Institute of Anthropology and History (INAH), who have also been digging 30 meter length of the 34 measuring platform that was considered most important prehispanic temple used by the Aztecs to worship the god of wind.
The remains of the recently found construction phase, consisting of a circular wall of the base body and the remains of stucco, with this added and three construction phases of the ancient temple discovered last year in an area of \u200b\u200bthe street in Guatemala, Historic Center of Mexico City, behind the Metropolitan Cathedral.
These new traces chronologically under phase V of the Templo Mayor (1481 to 1486 AD), which is added to both phases of the building discovered in January 2010, relating to the stages VI (1486-1502 AD), regarding the rise of Tenochtitlan, and VII (1502-1521 AD), which was seen by the English conquistadors upon their arrival in this ancient city, reported archaeologist Raul Barrera, head of Urban Archaeology Program (PAU) of the INAH.
While attending the lecture series commemorating the 33 years since the discovery of the monolith of the Coyolxauhqui, archaeologist reported that during the first season of explorations around this building Hispanic, progress has been made in the excavation and consolidation of this ancient temple, which is constituted of a platform and a circular body attached.
The forum which takes place in the Museo del Templo Mayor, Raul Barrera explained further that with respect to the platform have been dug Hispanic 30 of the 34-foot length is calculated has, likewise, for this work was achieved accurately determine the diameter of the circular temple attached.
In 2010, when the temple was found, he said, was believed to have a diameter of 14 m, and after the excavation has been established that are 18 m. "In addition to detecting the new stage of construction, has worked to consolidate and restore the stucco and walls that make up the base, a task undertaken by the team of experts from Temple Museum Mayor.
"The Temple of Ehécatl-Quetzalcoatl, which we dug 30 meters from north to south, and nine meters long, is one of the most representative of pre-Hispanic times, because everything indicates that its main front, with its circular temple, was aimed at the Templo Mayor, in particular at the side of the shrine to Tlaloc, "said the archaeologist. This
"he said, makes sense when one considers that Ehécatl-Quetzalcoatl was the Aztec god of wind, an element that precedes rain, the latter represented by Tlaloc, god of water and lightning.
Hence the pyramid dedicated to Quetzalcoatl Ehécatl-known as "House of the Wind" had a peculiar way: the façade was quadrangular, while the rear, circular, served to support a cylindrical temple covered by a thatched roof like a big cone.
Raul Barrera said that according to historical documents of the sixteenth century writers, among them Fray Bernardino de Sahagun, Diego Duran, and Bernal Díaz del Castillo, the main entrance to this temple was shaped like a snake's jaws, and possibly accessed around the warriors or priests. The head of the PAU
explained that at present the pre-Hispanic structure is protected with a material synthetic geotextile, used to keep moisture out and provide a suitable temperature to avoid spoilage and allow for conservation.
During the exploration work, he said, have found much of stucco and floor slabs of basalt that formed part of the square prehispanic findings also add to the material previously found, fragments of sculptures of deities and remains Mexica from the battlements as biznaga, considered correspond to the period from 1502 to 1521.
Also, in these investigations that also involve archaeologists Ivan Fuentes Urdapilleta and Israel, have found more than two thousand pieces pre-Columbian and colonial ceramics. The pre-Hispanic pottery corresponds to the so-called Texcoco, Cholula, Azteca III and IV, relating to the heyday and decline of the Mexican culture. While the colonial styles is green and brown glaze, Blue and Green Majolica Cream and Puebla Blue on White, among others. Also, located pieces of European porcelain and china.
"Although in the sacred precinct of Tenochtitlan had several temples and shrines dedicated to Ehécatl, as the case of the Pyramid of Pino Suarez, it was discovered in 2010 should be the most representative," he said Raul Barrera.
worth mentioning that the area action Urban Archaeology Program comprises approximately 500-meter quad, space occupied by the sacred stones of the ancient city Tenochtitlan. (Source INAH)

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Ancient Mesoamerica News Updates 2011, No. 9: Tula, Hidalgo - Selection of Recently Discovered Objects Now on Exhibit at the Museum
Tula Site Discovered in 2006 and 2009, Some 500 objects discovered at Various Archaeological sites in the Mexican state of Hidalgo Have Been restored and a selection of These objects is now on exhibit at the museum of the Archaeological Site of Tula, as Reported by the WAS National Institute of Anthropology and History on Tuesday, February 22, 2011. The report INAH Also Provides details on the Recent Excavations of child Burials. Among the objects restored and now on exhibit at the museum site Tula is the statuette of Xipe Totec discovered in December 2009 and Report upon in Ancient Mesoamerica News Updates 2010, No. 1 (edited by amanu): Return
Tula archaeological restored - Proceeds from diverse findings seen in various places in Hidalgo, in about five years they have collected more than 500 archaeological pieces, corresponding to the boom phase of the Toltec culture, this series of articles highlights the Xipe Totec sculpture, that after a careful restoration process performed by specialists National Institute of Anthropology and History (INAH), returns to the archaeological zone of Tula to be exhibited to the public from Wednesday 23.
This piece, whose name means "Our Lord the Flayed" in Nahuatl, was found in December 2009 in an area particularly during the implementation of drainage works, represents the first discovered in the area that occupied the ancient city of Tula . It is estimated that for the Tollan period (900-1150 AD).
The sculpture, along with 19 found in 2006, were restored in the National School of Conservation, Restoration and Museology (ENCRyM) INAH in Mexico City, where for over a year were subjected to a treatment for preservation, after completing this work, were sent to Tula to be shown for the first time in an exhibition entitled Beyond the confines of Tula Grande, mounted on the Board of Guidance from the archaeological zone.
The Xipe Totec is a ceramic bust of Mexican deity associated with agriculture, fertility and life-death cycle, measures 85 cm high and represents an individual standing in sandals and loincloth, through technical pastillaje artisans gave the appearance to be skinned. During its restoration, INAH experts restored him an arm that was broken off and treated fractures on his face.
addition of this sculpture, restorers involved 19 other pre-Hispanic pieces, among which two walls of adobe polychrome painted blue, yellow, red and black pottery with images of monkeys, a necklace and a bracelet of shell and greenstone and figurines still have pigments, which shall remain on display at the site until 18 March.
In almost five years in Hidalgo were found just over 500 archaeological pieces, of which 450 are from scans made in 2006 on the distributor road to Tula, and other 70 correspond to those found with the Xipe Totec in particular tract, where they also discovered 26 human burials (four adults and other children) who were accompanied by offerings. All the remains belong to the Tollan phase (900-1150 AD).
The more than fifty pre-Hispanic objects have been registered and classified by the INAH, and are in receipt of the archaeological zone of Tula, is currently preparing a script for display in a larger sample that includes the presentation of about 200 objects.
report new Mexica infant burials - In findings reported in 2006 and 2009, joins the five infant burials Mexican culture for the Late Post Classic period (1350 - 1521 AD) and remains of walls and floors of what was a residential unit Toltec Tollan phase (900-1150 AD) found in late January in a particular site located 1.5 km from the archaeological zone of Tula, during construction work on a fence.
The recovery of the burials and offerings, is the result of the cooperation agreements between INAH and the city of Tula, to protect the urban pre-Hispanic monuments that still exist around the archaeological site.
The archaeologist Manuel Gamboa Cabezas, responsible de las labores de salvamento arqueológico en el kilómetro 10 de la carretera Tepetitlán-Tula, explicó que los restos humanos corresponden a tres niños y dos perinatales de filiación mexica, asociados a ofrendas de cerámica, integradas por ollas, jarras y cuencos monocromos naranjas y en negro sobre naranja.
El arqueólogo explicó que los entierros se descubrieron sobre los pisos de viviendas que ocuparon los toltecas, y que posteriormente fueron reocupadas por los mexicas. Los infantes fueron colocados en fosas hechas en los núcleos de las plataformas. “Esto es indicador de que con el paso del tiempo el lugar fue abandonado por los toltecas y en el Posclásico Tardío fue reocupado por grupos de filiación Mexican funeral as a deposit.
"We assume that the residential unit was only re-used by the Aztecs as a burial place because there are no other contemporary element to them, as might be overlapping architectural floors or walls."
on the architectural remains found, the archaeologist Gamboa referred to under a residential unit Toltec observed in the floor of the courtyard in good condition and remains of small platforms. The construction phase is Tollan, considered the heyday and expansion of the archaeological city of Tula.
specified that such discoveries the presence of post-Toltec groups is not new to the region of Tula, but momentous in history, as it confirms the significance of the region and the cult of Quetzalcoatl to the Aztecs, who considered themselves heirs Toltecs.
The materials found were lifted from the site for study in the laboratories of INAH, while the remains of pre-Hispanic buildings will be preserved as an archaeological reserve for future study. (Source INAH)

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Ancient Mesoamerica News Updates 2011, No. 8: Tlatelolco, Mexico-Three Wooden lintels Exhibit To Be At The National Museum of Anthropology
Düring construction work close to the Plaza de las Tres Culturas, the center of Tlatelolco, three wooden lintels Were discovered in 1992. The lintels Are Between 500 to 800 years old and kept Were specific process through to Which Took Some 15 years. All three lintels Will Be on show for the very first time at the National Museum of Anthropology in Mexico City as part of the exhibit Entitled "six ancient cities in Mesoamerica. Society and Environment." This new exhibit will open at the Mexico City museum in early March of this year and is curated by archaeologist Eduardo Matos Moctezuma (edited by amanu; photo: INAH):
will show prehispanic lintels Tlatelolco - Three wooden lintels with a length of between 500 and 800 years old that were part of one of the ancient temples that may have seen Cortez to arrive at Tlatelolco, be shown to the public for the first time after have been restored by the National Institute of Anthropology and History (INAH), in a process that lasted over 15 years.
The ancient architectural elements, with a weight of 200 kilos each, are considered among the few examples of pre-Hispanic times found until today, and will be exhibited as part of pre-Hispanic pieces of the most prominent- 400 - that make up the major exhibit six ancient cities in Mesoamerica. Society and Environment, curated by maestro Eduardo Matos Moctezuma, and will be presented at the National Museum of Anthropology from the first days of March.
This is an unprecedented exhibition so gather under one roof more than four hundred pieces of ancient pre-Columbian cities of Monte Alban, Palenque, El Tajin, Teotihuacan, Tlatelolco Tenochtiltlan and, through this collection for the first time address these important civilizations from environmental and social environment in which they flourished. Tlatelolco
The lintels were found in September 1992, during the construction of the building then occupied the Mexican Foreign Ministry, in the vicinity of the Plaza de las Tres Culturas ", the same year, after evaluating their conservation status, since they remained submerged in the subsoil long around 600 years, a method was designed to slow its deterioration, which began in 1993.
"Undoubtedly, the lintels were rescued from one of the buildings that impressed Cortez to arrive at Tlatelolco, they presented a scene carved in bas-relief sequence, suggesting that should be part of the same temple with three hits "said the INAH archaeologist Carballal Margarita, who led rescue work pieces for almost two decades.
"The rescue was made under difficult conditions because they were at the table and covered with mud," recalled the researcher, when referring to the antiquity of the pieces was estimated at the time under the splendor of Tlatelolco, to the Late Postclassic (1200 -1521 AD).
The pieces made of pine wood ayacahuite, have a length of 1.90, 2.20 and 2.35, between 50 and 60 cm wide and 20 to 26 cm thick, would have accrued to the top of the entrances to a building that could have had a civil-religious use, this according to historical documents referring to temples in the area where they were found.
Meanwhile, Luisa Mainou, restorer National Coordination of Cultural Heritage Conservation responsible for the preservation of these architectural elements throughout the decade and a half, said to get to the workshops, the wood was waterlogged, ie that the pieces were saturated with water and even with some parts in a state of putrefaction, which resulted in the loss of physical and mechanical properties and chemical characteristic of sound wood.
However, "considering that the pieces were in water about 600 years, the condition still was good, which was mainly due to wood type and thickness, as if they were thin because they would have disintegrated and all the outside was rotten, "explained the restoration.
parts intervention began with a study of the physical-mechanical and chemical properties of wood, which allowed us to determine different states of decay from the inside out. Subsequently led to the cleaning and application of preventive treatment to prevent drying of the timber, and the application of fungicide to prevent fungus growth. Luisa
Mainou abounded that for removal of water from the wood, was used to wet-dry method, which is gradually drying wood by replacing the glass with a polymer to keep the size and shape of each piece without collapse and spray timber.
Also, the pieces weighing about 300 kg at the time of discovery, reduced his weight for over 15 years in which they made the replacement of water, also recovering a structural level acceptable to manipulate with greater security, Restorative abounded.
also said during the final stage of restoration was the consolidation of the lintels, with which guarantee the necessary conditions to be exhibited for the first time, thereby achieving the meaningfulness of these parts to restore their historic and aesthetic value. Mainou restorer named said that the lintel 248, involved a larger work, because it presented a longitudinal fracture, the two parties were to unite by a method which took several months to design.
pointed out that different conservation processes that have been applied to the doorposts of Tlatelolco, are the result of several years of previous research, since each piece had a different behavior in spite of coming from the same place. "It was a delicate and gradual in which at any given time to be creative because we can not copy processes Europeans because they do not correspond to the characteristics of Mexico. "
Iconography of the lintels of Tlatelolco - According to the archaeologist Margarita Carballal, lintels from the twin city of Tenochtitlan, is a unique example of the complex pre-Hispanic iconography.
In one of them, there are characters in procession to a center where there is a solar disc decorated with two large jade stones chalchihuites symbolizing the precious water. About that ring there are 18 small circles and six rays, the center is observed ollin glyph that represents the movement.
Individuals are richly dressed and carry different symbols and elements, some related to deities associated with rain.
The display of the three lintels for the first time, will take place in Exhibition Hall Temporary National Anthropology Museum, as part of the sample six ancient cities in Mesoamerica. Society and Environment, which will bring together 400 pieces in an unprecedented way the ancient pre-Columbian cities of Monte Alban, Palenque, El Tajin, Teotihuacan, Tenochtiltlan and Tlatelolco. (Source INAH)

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JOHN LOCKE (1632-1703). JOHN LOCKE

JOHN LOCKE (1632-1703).
HISTORICAL AND CULTURAL
(later philosopher).: A summary.

The Two Treatises on Government IVIL c constitute a compendium of philosophical-anthropological work of policy in which John Locke (1632-1704) stated, initially anonymously: edition of 1690 - its political thought and constitutional proposals directed toward the best government civil society. Being the First Treatise important in the sense that throughout its chapters is a critique of the 'patriarchy', ie the absolute monarchy, the political formula that was established in Great Britain and the rest of Europe throughout the seventeenth century and much of the eighteenth century, was the Second Treatise , more technical and decisive, which is over exerting greater influence both in defining the doctrinal body of political liberalism as the European and American constitutionalism (North, Central and South America: American emancipation movements the third decade of the nineteenth century are not so late reflections of women's emancipation in the late eighteenth century in the British colonies of North America, this autonomy movement directly influenced by European artwork, especially the English and French).

These politicians was treated and released while Locke was given to the innate response to Cartesian with short but highly influential An Essay Concerning Human Understanding "An Essay Concerning Human Understanding , also from 1690 ( if they are not, as Locke argues in his political tracts, possible rationale institutions are based on the 'innateness patriarchal', neither do, as argued in the philosophical treatise, innate ideas: Just simple and complex ideas, naturally linked to sensory experience).

The production of these basic texts of Locke is part of a political, social and religious instability and continuous crisis in Britain. Such crises express clashes between a landowner and privileged nobility and bourgeoisie struggle for a new system that promotes their business and social promotion (this is the bourgeoisie of the coming Industrial Revolution.) And it happened, such crisis since the reign James I (1603-1625) , already established himself as a king 'constitutionalist' (Locke cited the speech of this king 'parliament' in the Chap. XVIII of Second Treatise, which he called From tyranny) until the Stuart Restoration (1660-1688) -with the execution of Charles I, successor of James I, a long chapter of civil war (1642-1648), and eleven years of Parliamentary Republic (1649 - 1660) in between. It is at this period of the Restoration of the Stuarts in the person of Charles II, also known outbreak of the "Glorious Revolution" in 1688, a period culminating in a Bill of Rights (Bill of Rights) in 1689, which is to frame the production and the most important episodes in the life of Locke, who died in 1703, the third year after the beginning of hostilities against Spain and France (War of Succession: 1701-1714), without the satisfaction of having been completely consolidated the system of political liberties to the defense and promotion had devoted his intellectual production and the most strenuous efforts of his life.

Regarding the influence of these political writings of Locke suffice it to say that the proposals contained in the second volume of the Second Treatise are also in the spirit and the letter of the Bill of Rights Virginia (the Virginia Bill of Rights of 1776), direct antecedent of the Constitution Independent States of America (USA) and the Declaration Universal Rights of Man and Citizen (1789: French Revolution). In this Second Treatise Locke states that it is the Aristotelian principle of seeking the common good (or the pursuit of happiness for individuals, as a normative political horizon) which should justify and support any political system. It does also invoking the same principle of Roman civil law at the time inspired Cicero's speeches on the law : Salus populi suprema lex .

Benjamin Franklin and Thomas Jefferson, two 'framers' of the United States, were once Lockean influenced by these proposals on a 'common good', 'better government', the 'subordination of the powers of the state' to safeguarding the common good which is the integration of individual goods, the partitioning and non-interference of the powers of the state between them (the legislative, judicial and executive: Half a century later, these ideas will be developed more diligently by Montesquieu), or the pursuit of happiness (The pursuit of happines: Life, liberty, and pursuit of happines) . The search or the imagination to achieve happiness as a right to be recognized and encouraged in constitutional texts, as indeed it was in most pro-democratic constitutions of the nineteenth century and is the current U.S. constitution. UU. This same principle also inspired the English constitutionalists of 1812, which established in Article 13 of the Constitution of Cadiz, in Chapter III The Government that " The purpose of government is the happiness of the Nation since the end of all political society is none other than the welfare of the individuals who compose . " In the English Constitution of 1978 the word 'happiness' is missing. In the European Constitution either, because there is none.



Incidentally (this should not sabérselo, but will not hurt you find out): What is in Europe or the European Union, is a Treaty establishing a Constitution for Europe , no longer a project. But a project largely aborted by the refusal of France and the Netherlands to sign it after it was endorsed by Spain in April 2005 with 44% participation. But the 'no' after France and the Netherlands was more decisive, as voted over 60% of those summoned, and they did it to say no, which caused an institutional crisis in which Europe does not seem to be able to get ( despite what we face out). We assume that this may mean something, but do not have time or space to develop these ideas here.


ELSE
http://www.paginasobrefilosofia.com/html/Locke2/prelocke.html In is the full Second Treatise. There is also a biography, a historical framework, and even some tests to see how we as in Locke.

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CURRENT POLITICAL THOUGHT OF JOHN LOCKE

Wondering about Locke currently amounts to asking for liberalism today. And, although usually the noun 'liberalism' is usually associated with the name of Adam Smith and his On the Origin of the Wealth of Nations (1776), the political theory of John Locke on the political representation under the rule of democracy Parliament (headed by the monarch) and the principle of 'no intervention' in economics (which, in A. Smith is known as the 'doctrine of laissez faire') predated those of Smith in a eighty years (different versions of the Treaties on Civil Government written since 1689, the third of these, in 1698, which Locke considered definitive.)

Similarly, in the moral doctrine of Adam Smith and the foundations of his theory of moral sentiments (the principle of sympathy and moral split personality: the staff judge's actions and the subject who performs) are detectable also some of the original proposals of Locke, who said that God breathed into human consciousness a series of moral prejudices or feelings pertaining to a predetermined plan of peace and harmony between individuals and peoples (not remained free action to individuals, they simply determined moral sentiments). Thus Locke answered and was confronted with the fatalistic conception and thoroughness of T. Hobbes Leviathan dominated by a pessimistic conception of human nature (the "Homo homini lupus').

The influence of liberalism and moral relativist and pragmatist theories derived from these postulates is remarkable. It could be argued that after the crises in Europe since 1989 by political systems related to the so-called real socialism or "communism" (Berlin Wall fell, Perestroika, disintegration of the USSR, etc.) Economic and political liberalism has emerged the only modern political theory (of historical modernity) to keep up. Can be seen even in traditionally political regimes 'socialist' as China and, more recently, the Cuban regime is being taken based on the principles of economic liberalism. This in the case of China is arguably the north of its global economic policy for decades: the subordination of all shares at the beginning of the competition. However

economic liberalism continues to show ineffective to propose effective solutions to two of the most serious problems persist in societies Contemporary: rising inequality and poverty rates on the one hand, and the problem of political corruption to a greater or lesser extent all countries suffer proclaim themselves as 'liberals' (U.S., EU Europe, Russian Federation, most countries formerly part of the process of decolonization after the 2 nd GM, which adopted the formula to become politically liberal, etc.)..

Moreover, the derivation of liberalism to political forms of radicalization conservative or 'neocon' as given in the U.S. movements such as the 'Tea Party', with the survival social racism in all EU Member States, with attacks from very powerful, all self-styled 'liberals', the timid social policies of President Obama, or as those found in Europe or a racist government Switzerland, or the rise of segregationist demands and / or xenophobic by large sections of European electorates are realities that continue to be concerned about media proliberales (universities, publishing houses, churches, political parties, trade unions ...) that defend principles such as self-goodness of the liberal principle par excellence, or postulates as the evil inherent in the existence of a strong state.

More information about the movement 'neocon'

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Ancient Mesoamerica News Updates 2011, No. 7: El Tajin, Veracruz - New Relief Panel
Discovered At the end of 2010 to relief panel, depicting a personage with left arms, was discovered in a stream some 100 meters to the west of the well-known Pyramid of the Niches at the archaeological site of El Tajín, Veracruz, Mexico. Strong rains at the end of last year had uncovered part of the panel. The sculpted panel measures 86 x 61 cm and has a thickness of some 15 cm. It dates from the period of circa A.D. 900-1200 and probably belonged to the sculptural program of the Pyramid of the Niches. The Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia (INAH) posted a short note on the newly discovered panel, its iconography, and its possible place of origin on their website this past Friday, February 11, 2011 (edited by AMaNU; photo: INAH):

relief discovered in the sacred character Tajin - A piece of board sculptural representation of a character with two left arms, which could be attached thousand 100 years ago to the front of the Pyramid of the Niches , was discovered by researchers National Institute of Anthropology and History (INAH) in the archaeological zone of El Tajin, Veracruz.
The finding was recorded in late 2010 in the bed of a stream located 100 m west of the Hispanic construction when heavy rain left partially exposed a sandstone (86 cm long x 61 wide and 15 cm thick) recorded in low relief with a scene almost complete, though somewhat blurred by the effect of erosion. Iconographic
Its similarity with other boards, the latter were located in the 80 - who were located in the Pyramid of the Niches, suggests that the fragment must also have been found exposed on that building at the end of Epi and early Early Postclassic between 900 and 1200 AD, said archaeologist David Andrade Olvera, attached to the site of El Tajin.
"The character in relief, his face in profile and seen from the front trunk shows two left arms, one under the other, but clearly there is no engraving right arm. This figurative representation of the human body associates this work with the world of the sacred, and even has elements as a kind of blinkers and tusks, which eroded the image does not ensure that it is a water deity Tlaloc, "explained the Head of Legal Protection of the archaeological zone.
The fragment of the board, whose symbolism is carried out further study, may be exposed temporarily during the second quarter of this year at the Museum site of El Tajin, under the "Piece of the month", but not is possible that later become part of the permanent collection of the space.
Al elaborate on the iconography of this work, David Andrade highlights similarities with other board and, in turn, unique elements thereof, for example, "carries a rectangular headdress recalls wearing a character represented in the board 28 of the Pyramid of the Niches, however, the newly found fragment carries ear differently from the rest of the bas-reliefs of El Tajin.
addition to a necklace and bracelets trapezoidal sections, the anthropomorphic character wears a tight skirt and a sash lattice bend at the waist with a kind of knot tied with fringes falling to the front, a similar bond is also seen around one of the arms.
"Behind the head individual-archaeologist described the observed part of the body of a snake with scales carved in a realistic way, while its left side are recorded several frets or scrolls called Tajin style in the lower part protruding concentric circles representing accounts jade. "
Another aspect that leaves the boards sculptural pattern of the Pyramid of the Niches, is a symbol (in front of the character's face, seemingly suspended from a border) that is formed by a disk with three counts on the inside and a kind of tongue hanging underneath.
David Andrade said that after the abandonment of the city the board could have found detached from the Pyramid of the Niches and be swept away by strong water currents, or, at some point (also in pre-Hispanic times) as stolen and reused by the stream, then dropping it.
During the exploration of the area where the sculpture was found, to see the features of the context in which lying and know the processes and conditions of their deposition, archaeologists took samples from El Tajin related materials and soil for laboratory analysis. "When you found the piece toured the area for the missing remains of the board, but so far we have not found them," noted the expert. About
of who carved this board said that so far has not been able to determine whether its origin was El Tajin Totonac huasteco or in any event as a regional development is called Tajin culture.
With respect to the Pyramid of the Niches, Olvera Andrade concluded that it should consist of 365 niches for the days of the solar calendar, thus fulfilling a function of the time, "however, the lack of more data, not we can make a direct link about the characters represented on their boards. " (Source INAH)