In these pages I offer a series of excerpts of texts from those who have been selected for selectivity. This time I tried to make the extensions of the same suit that have been habitual in these tests. You are accustomed to working with longer texts, so in theory it should seem easy to comment. Set as the terms that you say be particularly interesting to account for their semantic meaning and scope in the text not only from the text, but also appear in the headers of the texts or even in the titles. You in your analysis you can do the same (referring back to these headers and the titles), though you may not bring, if you see they have philosophical interest or historical-philosophical.
Here are the excerpts. Plato
Plato. Republic, VI.
- Yes, but on what you call `the study supreme ' and as to what is, do you think we can let pass without asking what ?
- Of course not, but lso t you may ask . Otherwise I've heard that quite often, and now, or do not remember, or you intend to raise issues to disturb me. Is this more like what I think, because I've often heard that the Idea of \u200b\u200bGood is the supreme object of study, from which the right things and all others become useful and valuable. And you know that if we do not know, though we knew everything else, not that anything would be of value, and if we have something without the good.
Plato. Republic, VI.
By Zeus! Glaucon exclaimed "Do not retire, Socrates, as if you're already at the end. Then we will be satisfied if, as I discourse on justice, moderation and the rest, well run about right.
- For my part, I shall be more satisfied. But I'm afraid that is not capable and that excite me, and discredit me look ridiculous. But enough for now, happy friends, l or is itself the Well, because I think too much for this drive allow at this time to achieve what I judge him. As for what seems an offshoot of Good and what most resembles him , however, I am willing to talk, if you please to you, otherwise let the issue.
Plato. Republic, VI.
- Here. What every soul pursues and which does everything, guessing there, but mired in difficulties that face and unable to grasp what is enough, or resort to a strong belief as for most other things, that is which takes away what may be advantageous to them, "something of this nature and magnitude," say you should stay in darkness for those who are the best in the State and with which we conduct our attempts ?
Plato. Republic, VI.
- So what brings truth knowable things and gives who knows the power of know, you can say it is the Idea of \u200b\u200bGood. And cause of science and truth, concíbela as knowable, and still being beautiful both knowledge and truth, if we consider the matter properly, we will have the idea of \u200b\u200bGood for something different and more beautiful than them. And as we said it was okay to take a light and related light by the sun but it would be wrong to believe that they are the sun, is now similarly correct to think that both, truth and science are related to Good , but it would be wrong to believe that either they were the Good, and Well's condition is much more worthy of esteem.
Plato. Republic, VII.
- (...). Above and beyond is light a fire that shines behind them, and between the fire and the prisoners there is a high road along which imagine a wall built from side to side as the screen that puppeteers stand in front of the public to show above the screen, the puppets.
- I imagine.
- Imagine now that, on the other side of the wall, pass men wearing all manner of vessels and figurines of humans and other animals, made of wood and stone of various kinds, and among those who spend some speak and others are silent.
- do strange comparison and strangers are those prisoners.
- But they are like us. Well first, do you think you have seen themselves or each other, other than the shadows cast by the fire on the part of the cave they have against it?
Thomas Aquinas Thomas Aquinas. Summa contra gentiles . I ,4-5
Chapter IV: Propónese conveniently men to be believed, the divine truth, accessible to natural reason .
There are thus two kinds of truths divine, one of which can be achieved with the right effort and one that surpasses all its capacity, both aim properly man to be believed by divine inspiration. But we turn first to the truths that are accessible to reason , lest someone creates useless to propose to believe for supernatural inspiration that reason can achieve.
Thomas Aquinas. Summa contra gentiles . I ,4-5
Chapter IV: Propónese conveniently men to be believed, the divine truth, accessible to natural reason .
must know ahead of many other things, to the knowledge of what reason may inquire of God, for precisely the study of philosophy is directed to the knowledge of God; why metaphysics, which deals with the divine is the last part to be taught philosophy. So you can not come to the knowledge of the truth, but by dint of intensive research, and certainly very few who want to develop this labor of love of science, even though God has embedded in the soul of men desire this truth.
Thomas Aquinas. Summa contra gentiles . I ,4-5
Chapter V: The truths that reason can not investigate adequately propónense men of faith to believe that .
is also necessary to have faith in these truths to have a true knowledge of God . Only possess a true knowledge of God when we that his being is about all we can think of Him , as the divine substance beyond the natural knowledge of man, as stated above. Because that man proposes some divine truth which surpasses human reason, he says in the belief that God is above than you might think.
Thomas Aquinas. Summa Theologica, VI, 2.: From Natural Law .
(...). As mentioned, the precepts of natural law are on the right practice the same as the first principles of demonstration regarding speculative reason: both are self-evident principles. Two ways can be obvious a thing in itself, considered in itself or considered in order to us. Considered in itself, is self-evident every proposition whose predicate is of the essence of the subject. But it can happen that one ignore the definition of the subject, so that he may not be evident proposition.
Thomas Aquinas. Summa Theologica, VI, 2.: From Natural Law .
And since good has the nature end, and the evil nature of Otherwise, all the things for which man feels natural inclination are naturally apprehended by intelligence and good and, therefore, as necessarily practicable, and their opposites, such as poor and Vitanda [to avoid]. Therefore, the order of the precepts of natural law is parallel to the order of natural inclinations. DESCARTES
Descartes. speech method, II.
And thought it was almost impossible our judgments may be so devoid of prejudice or may be as solid as it would have been had from birth we had been in possession of full use of our reason and we had guided solely by her, because as we have all been children before they become men, it has been necessary for years we were ruled by our desires and preceptors, as often were contrary to each other and probably neither one nor the other advised us the best.
Descartes. speech method, II.
But like a man who walks alone in the dark, I resolved to move as slowly and use caution in all such things but very little progress, at least I would look the best fall. On the other hand, I did not start completely reject some of the views that could have been sliding for another stage of my life in my beliefs without being assimilated into virtue of reason , until it had spent the time sufficient to complete the project undertaken, and investigate the true method to get knowledge of all things that my spirit was capable.
Descartes. speech method, II.
The long chains of simple reasons and easy, by means of which geometers usually get to meet the most difficult demonstrations, had me provided an opportunity to imagine that everything that can be object of knowledge of men are intertwined in the same way and that by refraining from any real support as it is, and not always keeping the order necessary to deduce each other , there can be some so remote from our knowledge that we can not finally know or so hidden that we can not get to discover.
Descartes. speech method, II.
But what gave me more pleasure in this method was that following him was sure use my reason, if not an absolutely perfect, at least the best way I could. Moreover, I realized that the practice of the progressively habituated my wit to conceive more clearly and distinctly its objects and since there was not limited to any particular field, I promised to apply with equal utility the difficulties of other sciences as well as he had done with Algebra. I mean this is not intending to consider any difficulties that arise in the first place, as this would have been contrary to the method prescribed. But when they had warned that its principles should be borrowed from philosophy, which was not any way, thought it was necessary first of all trying to establish.
Descartes. speech method, IV.
Later, looking hard at what I was, and seeing that I could pretend that it had no body, and that there was no world or any place where I found, but therefore could not pretend that I was not, but on the contrary, only after he thought doubt about the truth other things, it was very evident and certainly I was, while, if only he had stopped thinking, although other I had imagined had been true, had no reason to believe that I had been, I came to know from this that was a substance whose essence or nature does not lie but think that such a substance to exist, no need of any place nor depends on anything material.
Descartes. speech method, IV.
In short, if there are still men who are not sufficiently persuaded of the existence of God and soul [referring to the soul of man, not God] by the reasons given by me, I want you to know all other things, on which they intend to be sure, as having a body, the existence of stars, a land and the like, are less true. Well, if you have a moral certainty the existence of such things, which is such that unless you are small extravagance, can not doubt the same, however, unless the failure is small reason, when it is a metaphysical certitude, you can not deny it sufficient reason for not being entirely sure of having found that it is possible to imagine the same way, being asleep, you have another body, which are other stars and other land, without there being any such beings. LOCKE
Second test on Civil Government, chap. VII, paragraphs 89 and 90, Chapter VIII, paragraphs 95, 96, 97, chap. XII, paragraphs 143,144,145 and 146.
Second Treatise on Civil Government
CHAPTER VII. OF POLITICAL AND CIVIL SOCIETY
89. So long as any number of men in such a way in society to come together and leave each one his executive power of the law of nature , and resignation in the hands of the public, then there will be a civil society or politics. And this happens every time any number of men, leaving the state of nature, enter a town society to form a body politic and under one supreme government: or when any governor accediere any existing company, and It will incorporate.
CHAPTER VII. OF POLITICAL AND CIVIL SOCIETY (continued)
Because so authorize or society, which is, to legislature thereof, to submit to the law that the public good of society requires, and the execution assistance, as provided to their own decrees, will be required. And this brings to the men of the state of nature and makes them enter the republic, with the establishment of a judge on earth with authority to resolve all the debates and redress the wrongs of any member may be a victim, where the judge the legislative or magistrates appointed any.
CHAPTER VIII. THE BEGINNING OF POLITICAL SOCIETIES
As all men, which said, naturally free, equal and independent , no person shall be removed to that state and subject to political power of another without his consent, which states agreeing with men come together and join in community to live comfortable, sheltered and peaceful with each other, in the secured enjoy their properties, and greater security against any which may be outside the agreement. That can make any number of people, without injury to the franchise from the rest, they remain, as they were before, freedom of the state of nature.
CHAPTER XII. LEGISLATIVE POWERS, EXECUTIVE AND STATE FEDERATIVE
The incumbent legislature to direct the use of force of the republic to preserve it and its members. And can the laws that must be continuously carried out and whose strength must ceaselessly strive, to be released in a short time, it is desirable that the legislature be uninterrupted, because the issues might be neglected, and also because the human could fragility tempted to usurp power, and that the same people who attend the power to legislate, she joined the defense of their own interests, thus taking the legislators a different interest of the public interest, contrary to the end this sort of society and its governance.
CHAPTER XII. LEGISLATIVE POWERS, EXECUTIVE AND STATE FEDERATIVE
Because even in a republic are members different people, and as such laws will govern society, however, compared to the rest of humanity are one body, just as each of its members was when in a state of nature lived with other men, so that successive races between any man of society with which they were tuera of She was found by the public and caused an injury to a member of this body committed to others in service. KANT
I. Kant. Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals . Cap. I. (Transit common moral knowledge of reason the philosophical knowledge).
Neither the world nor, in general, not out of the world, it is possible to think anything that can be thought of as good without qualification , unless only a willingness . Understanding, wit, trial, or whatever you call the talents of the spirit, the courage, determination, perseverance in the purposes, as qualities of temperament, are undoubtedly, in many respects good and desirable, but also can become extremely bad and harmful if the will has to make use of these gifts of nature (... ) is not good.
I. Kant. Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals . Cap. I. (Transit common moral knowledge of reason the philosophical knowledge).
To develop the concept of a will estimated worth itself, a good will no ulterior purpose, such as is in the sound natural understanding, no need to be taught, but rather explained, to develop this concept that is always on the cusp of all the estimate we make of our actions and that is the condition of everything else, let us consider the concept of duty containing a good will, although under certain subjective restrictions and obstacles, which, however, far from hiding and make it unknowable, rather by contrast make it stand out and appear more clearly.
I. Kant. Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals . Cap. I. (Transit common moral knowledge of reason the philosophical knowledge).
(...) An action done from duty has its moral value, not on purpose by it is to be achieved, but the maximum which has been resolved , does not depend, therefore, of reality the object of the action, but merely the beginning of wanting under which the action has occurred, irrespective of all objects in the power of desire. For the above it becomes clear that the purposes that we have to perform actions and their effects, considered as ends and engines will not be providing any actions and moral absolute.
I. Kant. Groundwork of the metaphysics customs. Cap. II: (Transit popular moral philosophy to metaphysics of morals).
The worst service that can be made to love her morality is inferred from some examples. For any example I can present it has to be further pre-judged according to principles of morality to know if it is worthy to serve original sample, that is, model, and can not be in such a way some that we provide the concept of morality. (...)
I. Kant. Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals . Cap. II: (Transition from popular moral philosophy the Metaphysics of Morals).
Well, all imperatives command, and hypothetical, and categorically. .. Now if the action is good only as means to something else, then the imperative is hypothetical, but if the action is represented as a good in itself , this is as necessary in a will according to reason itself, as a principle of such a will, then the imperative is categorical. (...)
The categorical imperative is therefore unique and is as follows: work only as a maximum so that you can at the same time that it becomes universal law. (...)
I. Kant. Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals . Cap. II: (Transit popular moral philosophy to metaphysics of morals).
If then there must be a supreme practical principle and a categorical imperative with respect to the human will, there will be such that, for the representation of what is necessary in order for everyone because it is in order itself, constitutes an objective principle of will and, therefore, be used as universal practical law. The basis of this principle is: rational nature is an end in itself . This necessarily represent man his own existence, and in that respect is it a subjective principle of human actions. MARX
MARX, K. Contribution to the critical of political economy. Preface.
I examine the system of bourgeois economy in the following order: Capital, Property, Wage Labor, State, Trade, global market. Under the first three titles study the economic conditions of existence of the three great classes which divide modern bourgeois society, the link of the other three titles is obvious. The first section of the first book, which deals capital, includes the following chapters: 1. º merchandise. 2. No currency or simple circulation. 3. º Capital in general.
MARX, K. Contribution to the critical of political economy. Preface.
The change that has occurred in the economic base upset about slow or fast all colossal superstructure. In considering such disorders matter always distinguish between the material condition of the economic conditions of production -that must be checked accurately with the help of physical and natural sciences, and legal, political, religious, artistic or philosophical, in short, ideological forms in which men become conscious of this conflict and fight it out.
MARX, K. Contribution to the critical of political economy. Preface.
bourgeois relations of production are the last antagonistic form of social production process , not in the sense of an individual antagonism, but of an antagonism that arises from the social conditions of existence of individuals; productive forces are developed within bourgeois society create at the same time the material conditions to resolve this antagonism. Ends with this social formation, therefore, the prehistory of human society.
NIETZSCHE NIETZSCHE, F: The twilight of the idols. 'The "reason" in the philosophy'
You ask what things are idiosyncrasies of philosophers? ... For example, lack of historical sense, their hatred of the notion of becoming his egipticismo. They believe an honor granted to one thing when dehistoricize, sub specie aeterni [from the perspective of eternity], when they make her a mummy. All that philosophers have been handling thousands of years were conceptual mummies; of his hands did not leave alive anything real. Matan, stuffed with straw, these gentlemen idolators of concepts, when they worship, - become mortally dangerous for all, when they worship.
NIETZSCHE, F: The twilight of the idols. 'The "reason" in the philosophy'
I put to one side, with great reverence, the name of Heraclitus . While the rest of the people of the philosophers rejected the testimony of the senses because they showed plurality and change, he rejected their testimony because they showed things as if they had life and unity. Also Heraclitus was wrong with the senses. These do not lie and the way Eleatics believe or the way he thought - do not lie in any way. What we do. of his testimony, that is what introduces the lie, such lies unit, the lie of the thing-ness of the substance, the duration ...
NIETZSCHE, F: The twilight of the idols. 'The "reason" in the philosophy'
- inimical to this, at last, as we do so differently (-tell us, courtesy ...) see the problem of error and appearance. In another time he took the change, change, becoming in general as evidence of appearance, as a sign that there must be something that is misleading. Today, conversely, the exact extent that prejudice of reason forces us to assign unity, identity, duration, substance, cause, thing-ness, be we are somehow caught in the error , needy error, even though, based on a rigorous verification within us are quite sure that is where the error is.
Today we possess science precisely to the extent that we have decided to accept testimony the senses, "we have learned to keep sharp, arming them, thinking them through. The rest is an abortion and still-no-science: I mean, metaphysics, theology, psychology, theory of knowledge. Or formal science, theory of signs, such as logic and that logic applied mathematics. In reality they failed to emerge, even as a problem, as well as the question of what value is general convention of signs that is the logic .-
NIETZSCHE, F : The twilight of the idols. 'The "reason" in the philosophy'
ORTEGA Y GASSET
Ortega y Gasset, J. The theme of our time. chap. X. " doctrine point of view."
oppose culture to life and claim it the fullness of their rights before it is to make a profession of faith anticultural. If it is interpreted above, it is perfect practice misrepresentation. Remain intact cultural values; only denies its exclusivity. For centuries it has been talking only of the need that life has of culture. Without altering the least this need, it is argued here that culture needs less of life. Both the inherent powers "of the biological and cultural transcendent are in this way face to face with the same title, without subjection to one another.
Ortega y Gasset, J. The theme of our time. chap. X. " doctrine point of view."
The subject is neither a transparent medium, a "pure self " identical and unchanging, nor his reception of reality occurs in this strain. The facts impose a third opinion, exemplary synthesis of both. When a sieve or grid interposed in a stream, you miss some things and stops others, will say that the select, but not the shape. This function is subject of living with the reality that surrounds cosmic . Or let pass without any more for it, as would occur to the imaginary rational being created by the rational definition, or pretend it an illusory reality.
Ortega y Gasset, J. The theme of our time. chap. X. " doctrine point of view."
The individuality of each subject was the uncontrollable nuisance to the intellectual tradition of recent times was the knowledge that could justify its claim to get the truth. Two different subjects, it was thought, reach divergent truths. Now we see that the divergence between the worlds of two individuals not imply the falsity of one of them. On the contrary, precisely because what everyone sees is reality and not fiction, its appearance has to be different from the one perceived. This divergence is not contradictory, but complement.
Ortega y Gasset, J. The theme of our time. chap. X. " doctrine point of view."
Each individual is an essential point of view . Juxtaposing the partial views of all would be achieved by weaving embracing and absolute truth. Now this sum of individual perspectives, this knowledge what every one has seen and know, this omniscience, absolute the real reason is the sublime office we attribute to God. God is also a point of view, but not because it has a lookout outside the human that makes you see reality directly universal, like an old rationalist. God is not rational.
